Aelfheah of Canterbury

Aelfheah was born in roughly the year 954 in Weston, Bath. He was deeply pious and became a monk, first entering the monastery at Deerhurst, Gloucester. He moved on to Bath Abbey where after a few years he became the Abbot.

In 984 Aelfheah became Bishop of Winchester. He was consecrated on October 19th of that year. In 994, England was invaded by the Danish. The army landed in Essex, moving into Kent and Sussex, killing people, setting fires and plundering. Aelfheah was sent by King Ethelred to make peace with the Danish, accompanied by Alderman Ethelwerd. In this he was successful; Anlaf agreed to never raid England again and converted to Christianity. Aelfheah confirmed Anlaf as a Christian, and Anlaf stayed true to his word. The Danish invaded England again in 1001, but Anlaf was not involved in the raid.

In 1002, Aelfheah oversaw the final stages in the rebuilding of Old Minster’s. He commissioned a huge organ with 400 wind pipes. This same year, King Ethelred ordered the St. Brice’s Day Massacre; all the Danish people in England were killed. The loss of life was huge. One of the people killed was Gunhilda, the sister of the King of Denmark.

On November 16th 1005 Aelfric of Abingdon, the Archbishop of Canterbury, died. Aelfheah succeeded him and was consecrated in 1006. He recieved his pallium from Pope John XVIII in 1007.

An illuminated manuscript showing Aelfheah as Archbishop, from the 15th century

 

In 1010, England was once again raided by the Danish. They had soon taken Essex, Kent, East Anglia, Middlesex, Oxfordshire, Bedfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Cambridgeshire, Hertfordshire, Berkshire, Huntingdonshire, Sussex, Hastings, Surrey and much of Wiltshire. Many of the English were killed trying to defend their country. King Ethelred attempted to make peace with the Danish in 1011, but the truce was short-lived. Canterbury was raided, and Archbishop Aelfheah was taken prisoner. Others were captured with him, including the King’s steward Elfward and Bishop Godwin. Canterbury Cathedral was ransacked by the soldiers after Aelfheah’s capture.

Aelfheah was kept imprisoned by the Vikings and a ransom of £3,000 was demanded for his release. Aelfheah refused to allow the ransom to be paid.

On April 19th 1012, Aelfheah was executed with a battle-axe by a soldier called Thrum. He was buried at St. Paul’s Cathedral in London.

On June 8th 1023, Aelfheah’s body was exhumed and re-interred with great ceremony at Christ Church Cathedral, Canterbury by the orders of King Canute. Aelfheah’s remains were a great pilgrimage site for hundreds of years afterwards- Thomas Becket prayed to them before his brutal murder in December 1170.

In some churches, Archbishop Aelfheah is also known as Elphege or Alfege.

 

Further reading-

“The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles”

“British Kings & Queens” by Sandra Forty

“Queen Emma and the Vikings” by Harriet O’Brien

 

Dafydd ap Gruffudd

Daffyd ap Gruffudd was born in 1238. He was the youngest son of Gruffudd ap Llywelyn Fawr and his wife Selena. Dafydd’s father was the eldest son of Llywelyn Fawr- Llywelyn the Great, Prince of Wales. Gruffudd died in 1244 while trying to escape from the Tower of London, and Dafydd’s older brother Llywelyn ap Gruffudd became the Prince of Wales.

In 1255 Dafydd and his brother Owain rebelled against their brother Llywelyn’s unpopular rule in Wales. The rebellion was unsuccessful and Llywelyn defeated his two brothers at the Battle of Bryn Derwin. Dafydd was imprisoned. He was released a year later, restored to favour and granted lands at Four Cantrels.

Even though he had been restored to Royal favour Dafydd was still unhappy. In 1263 he rebelled again against Llywelyn, this time joining forces with King Henry III of England. Dafydd married an English woman in 1265; Lady Elizabeth Ferrers, the daughter of the Earl of Derby. They lived together at the manor of Folesham in Norfolk. During their marriage Elizabeth gave birth to three sons and a daughter.

The treaty of Montgomery was signed in 1267 between Llywelyn and Henry III. Llywelyn was acknowledged as Prince of Wales and paid homage to Henry III. Dafydd was again reconciled with Llywelyn and his lands in Four Cantrels were restored.

Henry III of England died, and his eldest son Edward I became King of England on November 16th 1272. Llywelyn failed to appear before Edward several times to pay homage. Llywelyn made arrangements in 1275 to marry Eleanor de Montford; the daughter of Simon, Earl of Leicester and cousin of Edward I, without Edward’s permission.

Dafydd, even though he had his lands and favour restored, was still unhappy with the rule in Wales. He turned to the English again to rebel against his brother in 1274. Edward issued Dafydd with a statement of intent- he was to conquer Wales, deposing Llywelyn. He would then grant Dafydd the lands he wanted in Gwynedd and grant lands to Owain. They would attend parliament with Edward, as his other Earls did. War was declared on Wales by the English and Edward’s army marched out in 1276.

There was no battle between the English and Welsh. Llywelyn surrendered to Edward and signed the treaty of Aberconwy in the summer of 1277. Llywelyn’s authority in Wales was greatly reduced and Dafydd was granted his lands East on the River Conwy. Edward allowed Llywelyn to marry Eleanor de Montford; the wedding took place in 1278, on the feast day of St Edward.

Dafydd now had the lands and power he wanted, to an extent. He was now unhappy with the English authority over Wales. His lands bordered the lands of the King, and he felt oppressed and disliked the English regime. He rebelled again in 1282, this time against the English. On March 21st 1282, he and an army attacked Hawarden Castle. The castle was set on fire, members of the household killed and the constable of the castle taken prisoner. They next day Dafydd and his Welsh army attacked the castle at Flint, then the castle at Rhuddlan, followed by Aberystwyth and Oswestry. The rebellion was well planned and popular with the Welsh people.

Llywelyn did not immediately react to the rebellion. Eleanor was pregnant, so he waited to react, anticipating the birth of a son. Eleanor died in childbirth on June 19th, leaving a daughter. Llywelyn joined his brother’s rebellion.

In November 1282, Roger Mortimer, one of the King’s men, died. Llywelyn was tricked into thinking Mortimer’s men were against the English too. He left Dafydd in charge of Snowdonia with an army. Llywelyn was captured and killed by the English on December 11th. Dafydd was now the Prince of Wales.

Edward I now set his army to the task of hunting Dafydd. Dafydd sent a plea to the King for peace, which Edward ignored. The conquering of Wales continued in January 1283. Dafydd had gone into hiding; he went to Castell-y-Bere, in the mountains of Meirionnydd. The castle was sieged in April and Dafydd fled. Edward’s army travelled all over Wales, finding many men who were willing to submit to the English but not finding Dafydd.

On June 22nd 1283, Dafydd was found hiding in a bog at Llanberis, Mount Snowdon, with his brother Owain. Both were captured and taken into custody by the English army; they were taken to Edward’s camp at Rhuddlan, then into prison in Shrewsbury. A few days later, on the 28th, Dafydd’s eldest son Llywelyn ap Daffyd was also captured.

Edward summoned his parliament to Shrewsbury to decide the fate of Dafydd. On September 30th 1283, he was condemned to death as a rebel and traitor. Llywelyn was the first person to be convicted of the crime ‘high treason’- plotting the death of the King. He was also the first prominent person in recorded history to be sentenced to the full traitor’s death of being hanged, drawn and quartered.

Plaque marking the execution site of Dafydd ap Gruffudd in Shrewsbury, Shropshire

On October 2nd, 1283 Dafydd was dragged through the streets of Shrewsbury attached to a horse’s tail. He was hanged until he was half dead, cut down, emasculated, disembowelled, beheaded and quartered. His head was sent to be mounted on London Bridge, and his quarters were displayed across the country as a warning to others.

Dafydd’s three sons remained in prison. They lived the rest of their lives in Bristol Castle. His daughters and niece, Llywelyn’s daughter, were sent into convents.

Edward I made his son Edward of Caernarfon Prince of Wales in 1301. Traditionally, the heir to the English throne has been invested the Prince or Princess of Wales ever since.

Further reading-

“A Great and Terrible King” by Marc Morris

“Tower” by Nigel Jones

Thomas Culpeper

Thomas Culpeper was born around the year 1514 to Alexander Culpeper and his wife, Constance Harper. He had an older brother, who was also called Thomas Culpeper. Thomas was distantly related to Katherine Howard; they had a common ancestor, Sir Thomas Culpeper of Brenchley and Bayhall, who died in 1309.

As a young man, Thomas began serving in the household of Arthur Plantagenet, Viscount Lisle; the illegitimate son of Edward IV. This led to Thomas entering Royal service in the year 1535. Thomas became a gentlemen of King Henry VIII’s privy chamber. He quickly became a favourite of the King’s, and was a member of the welcoming party sent to greet Anne of Cleves at Dover in December 1539.

Thomas Culpeper, played by Torrance Coombes in the Showtime TV series “The Tudors”

In 1539, a Thomas Culpeper was accused of raping a parkkeeper’s wife and murdering a villager who came to help her. It is not known if it was the Thomas Culpeper who served the King or his older brother who committed the crime, which was punishable by death. Whichever Thomas it was, they were pardoned by the King.

Katherine Howard joined King Henry’s court as a lady in waiting to Anne of Cleves. Thomas and Katherine had began a flirtation, but Katherine had caught the King’s eye too. Katherine married King Henry in July 1540.

As a gentleman of the privy chamber, Thomas saw a lot of Queen Katherine and her ladies. During a progress to the North in the summer of 1541, the two of them became close. Katherine quickly became infatuated with Thomas. It is not known for certain if the two of them had a sexual relationship. Thomas may have wanted to become close to the Queen for political reasons or for her friendship. Sexual or not, Thomas and Katherine kept their meetings a secret.

During the summer progress to the North an ex-lover of Katherine, Francis Dereham, had entered her household. When Archbishop Cranmer found out about their past relationship, Francis was arrested. He was suspected of continuing his affair with Katherine. To show his innocence, Francis told his examiners he had been replaced in Katherine’s affections by Thomas. Katherine’s household all knew of the secret meetings between the two of them. Some of Katherine’s ladies were interviewed and told what they knew of the secret meetings between Katherine and Thomas.

Thomas was arrested and sent to the Tower of London on November 12th 1541. He was questioned there- it is not known for certain if he was tortured for information. Thomas claimed he was not guilty of adultery. He did say, however, the intention to commit adultery was there on both sides. On November 14th, his belongings were confiscated and a letter from Queen Katherine discovered. This was enough to bring a charge of high treason against Thomas. (http://englishhistory.net/tudor/letter13.html)

Thomas was tried alongside Francis at Guildhall on December 1st 1541. Both of them were found guilty of high treason and sentenced to death by hanging, drawing and quartering. Both men appealed to King Henry for mercy. Francis was unsuccessful, but Thomas’ sentence was commuted to beheading.

Thomas was beheaded at Tyburn on December 10th 1541. His head was mounted on London Bridge with Francis’. Katherine will have passed by them on her way to the Tower the following February.

Thomas Culpeper at his execution, played by Torrance Coombes in the Showtime TV series “The Tudors”

Further reading-

“Six Wives” by David Starkey

“Tudor Queens of England” by David Loades

http://www.theanneboleynfiles.com/5066/thomas-culpeper/

Simon of Sudbury

Simon Theobald of Sudbury was the son of Nigel Theobald. He was born sometime in the 1300′s in Sudbury, Suffolk; an exact date of birth is not known. As a young adult, he went to Paris to study law then to Rome to work as a papal judge. He left Rome for England in 1359 by request of Pope Innocent VI, who wanted Edward III of England to make peace with France. He remained in England for the rest of his life.

In 1361 Simon was made chancellor of Salisbury, and in October that year was appointed Bishop of London. His consecration took place on March 20th 1362. Complaints were made that his London cathedral was neglected as he was often away. He built a church and college at the site of his father’s house, as well as working for Edward III and accompanying John of Gaunt to negotiations with France. In May 1375, Simon was elected Archbishop of Canterbury after the death of Archbishop William Whittlesey.

When Edward III died on the 21st June 1377,his 10 year old grandson, Richard, became King. The young Richard II was crowned by Simon at Westminster Abbey July 16th.

In 1378, Simon interviewed the reformer John Wycliffe at his home in Lambeth. He did this under pressure from two bishops; Courtenay, bishop of London and Wykeham, Bishop of Winchester. John had the support of both John of Gaunt and the other bishops, and was not condemned as a heretic.

Simon became Lord Chancellor of England in 1380 when Richard Scrope resigned. England was in trouble. That January, a poll tax of a groat for each person over 16 had been levied on the English people, which was highly unpopular. The Crown’s jewels had been used to borrow money, merchants were owed money and the country needed to defend itself from a war with France. Simon and the treasurer Sir Robert Hales had to raise £160,000 (over £1M in today’s money) to settle the debts of the crown and another poll tax was the only way to do it. The poll tax was set at 4-5 groats per person over the age of 15. This was a huge amount of money, especially for poorer and larger families.

The King meets his subjects- Richard II’s attempted negotiations with the rebel army from his barge on the Thames

This high poll tax, the unpopularity of John of Gaunt, Simon & Robert Hales, and labourers wanting higher wages and better working terms after the Black Death led to the uprising known as the “Peasant’s Revolt” in the June of 1381. The people of Essex and Kent refused to pay their tax, and rose in rebellion. Their leaders were Wat Tyler and John Ball. Wat was a man from Essex. Ball was a priest whom Simon had imprisoned several times for heretical preaching. Wat Tyler released John from Maidstone prison when the rebels marched through. Upon entering Canterbury, the rebels knelt before the monks and told them to elect a new Archbishop; “for he [Simon] is a traitor and he will be beheaded for his iniquity”.

By June 12th the rebel army had reached London. Simon’s home at Lambeth was stormed, fires were lit and his belongings destroyed. King Richard, his mother, Simon, Robert Hales and the Earls of Kent, Warwick, Salisbury, Suffolk, Oxford and Arundel had all taken refuge in the Tower of London. Sir John Newton took a message to the King from Wat Tyler; the King agreed to meet Tyler the next day to discuss the reasons for the rebellion and hear their demands. Later that day, Simon resigned as Lord Chancellor.

The next day King Richard travelled by barge from the Tower to Blackheath, his Lords with him. For fear of the crowds, they did not leave the barge. The King asked their demands from the Thames. Frightened, the King and council soon headed back to the Tower. This caused more anger in the rebel army. John of Gaunt’s London house was broken into and his belongings destroyed. His jewels were thrown out of windows and barrels of wine thrown onto lit fires, causing explosions in the house.

The next day, following advice from the Earl of Salisbury, King Richard decided to meet with the rebels and grant their demands. He did so on the grounds that they go home afterwards and they were all promised a pardon. Richard rode out to meet the army at Mile End.

Not all of the rebel army went to Mile End. Those that stayed behind forced their way into the Tower of London after the King had left. They smashed and looted their way to St John’s chapel, where they found Simon, Robert Hales, tax commissioner John Legge and John of Gaunt’s physician William Appleton. The rebels dragged the men from the chapel to Tower Hill. Simon warned the rebels of heavy punishment should they execute him, but it was too late. A log was put down for a block.

Sudbury & Hales are killed- picture from the British Library

Simon was the first of the four men to be executed by the rebels. It took around 8 clumsy strokes of the axe before Simon died. The other three men were executed after him.

Simon was the first person to be beheaded on Tower Hill.

Further reading-

“Summer of Blood: The Peasant’s Revolt of 1381″ by Dan Jones

Froissart’s Chronicles

“Tower” by Nigel Jones

A very interesting article- a forensic expert has reconstructed the face of Simon Sudbury! http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-tayside-central-14896640

Elizabeth Barton

Elizabeth Barton came from a poor family so not much of her early life is known. She is thought to have been born in 1506.

In 1525 Elizabeth worked as a servant in the household of Thomas Cobb. She became ill and began to fall into trances. During these trances, she said she was being sent devine revelations and began to make prophecies. Richard Masters, her parish priest, became aware of her trances and thought them to be sincere. William Warham, the Archbishop of Canterbury, was told of her prophecies and sent churchmen to examine her further. She prophecised she would be cured of her illness if she went to the Blessed Virgin in a small, out of the way chapel. She and a crowd went to the chapel, and Elizabeth was restored to health. She told the crowd at the chapel God had instructed her to become a nun. Edward Bocking had Elizabeth enter St. Sephulchre’s convent in Canterbury and she became a nun. She was soon known widely as “The Holy Maid of Kent”, or “The Nun of Kent”.

Stories of Elizabeth’s prophecies and cure of her illness spread. She was extremely popular with the people, from peasant to noble. Monks kept letters she had recieved from heaven, there were stories of her door opening itself at night and inviting her to pray in the chapel, and the words she spoke whilst in her trances were written down. She was seen by Archbishop Warham, Bishop Fisher and Thomas More. At first, her prophecies were harmless. She warned against heresy and Lutheranism, encouraged the people to be devout and spoke out against any rebellion against the King. In 1528, she was interviewed by Cardinal Wolsey. She predicted his downfall, a prophecy which was quickly fulfilled.

In 1532, Elizabeth’s prophecies stopped being harmless. She began to speak out against the King’s divorce, his marriage to Anne Boleyn and the Reformation of the church. She warned the King that if he married Anne Boleyn, he would die a villian’s death within a month and his daughter with Catherine of Aragon, Mary, would become Queen. She gained the support of other men who were opposed to the Royal divorce and reformation, including Bishop Fisher. Thomas More, however, warned her against offending the King. Her prophecies were printed as pamphlets and circulated widely.

19th century engraving of Elizabeth Barton- photo credit www.luminarium.org

 

Elizabeth did not heed his warning, and at the same time as the Pope provisionally excommunicated Henry VIII she claimed that the King was no longer King in the eyes of God. She was arrested in November 1533 and imprisoned in the Tower of London. Thomas Cranmer interviewed Elizabeth and investigated her offences. She was interrogated intensively by Thomas Cromwell. She collapsed under questioning. She confessed to making up her visions, that she had imagined it all to satisfy the minds of others. Her confession of guilt, whether honest or not, was not evidence enough to guarantee a successful conviction; she had not committed any treasonous acts, only spoken treasonous words. An Act of Attainder had to be put to parliament to condemn her. On 21st February 1534, Parliament recieved the Bill and it passed the following month. Elizabeth was guilty of high treason. The names of others appeared on the Bill; four others were to be executed with her, Bishop Fisher and Thomas More were named on the Bill for misprison of treason. Bishop Fisher was put under house arrest, but Thomas More’s name was removed.

Elizabeth was hanged for high treason at Tyburn on April 20th 1534. Her last words, as spoken from the scaffold:

“I am the cause not only of my own death, which most justly I have richly deserved, but of the death of all those persons who are going to suffer with me. Alas! I was a poor wench without learning, but the praises of the priests about me turned my brain, and I thought I might say anything that came into my head. I, being puffed with their praises, fell into a certain pride and foolish fantasy with myself. Now I cry to God and implore the King’s pardon.”

 

Further reading-

I could not find any biography on the life of Elizabeth Barton. Her story can be read in

“A Daughter’s Love” by John Guy, a biography of Sir Thomas More

“Thomas Cromwell” by Robert Hutchinson

“In The Lion’s Court” by Derek Wilson

Joan Waste

Joan Waste was the born in 1534 to a barber and ropemaker, William Waste, and his wife. She had a twin brother named Roger Waste. Joan was born blind. Despite this, she learned to knit well and learnt her father’s trade as a ropemaker. Both of her parents died when the twins were young. After hearing church services read in English during Edward VI’s reign, Joan worked hard to save money and buy herself her own copy of the New Testament. She couldn’t read the book herself, so she made friends with a man named John Hurt who read the Bible to her. John was a prisoner in the Common Hall in Derby for his debts. He was around 70 years old. When John became too ill to read to her, she would walk to the parish church of All Saints (which is now Derby Cathedral) and asked people there to read to her, sometimes paying them a penny a time. Soon, she could recite chapters of the Bible from memory.

Mary I became Queen in 1553 and was determined to return England to the Catholic faith. In 1555, Protestant views were made illegal and Queen Mary reinstated the heresy laws. This made Protestant beliefs a capital offence. Joan was arrested by a Roman Catholic priest Dr Draycot. She was questioned and refused to recant, and “desired them to do their pleasure”. She was sent to prison in Derby for around a month to await trial.

On the morning of August 1st 1556, Joan was taken to a sermon by Dr Draycot. He told the people in All Saints of her heresies, and that she was cut from the Catholic Church for denying the sacrament of the altar to be the very body and blood of Christ. Joan, as well as denying transubstantiation, had objected to church services being read in Latin and was also convicted of owning a copy of the New Testament in English. Dr Draycot told the people at the sermon Joan was not only blind of her bodily eyes, but blind in the eyes of her soul, and instructed them not to pray for her. She was condemned to death. She walked to her place of execution, Windmill Pit, hand in hand with her twin brother. When there, she asked the people to pray for her. She was burnt at the stake. Dr Draycot did not witness the burning; he returned to the inn he was staying at and slept through the whole execution.

John Foxe wrote about her in his book, Actes & Monuments:

“The first day of August [1556] …….suffered likewise at the town of Derby, a certain poor honest godly woman: being blind from her birth, and unmarried, about the age of twenty-two, named Joan Waste, of the parish of All Hallows.”

Further reading-

“Actes and Monuments” by John Foxe, also known as Foxe’s Book of Martyrs

Francis Weston

Francis Weston was born around the year 1511 to Sir Richard Weston, a landowner in Berkshire, and his wife Anne. As he was born minor gentry, he would have been educated. He became a gentleman of King Henry VIII’s Privy Chamber in 1525. He was good friends with King Henry, often playing cards and tennis with him. He slept in the King’s bedchamber on a pallet. He married in 1530 to Anne Pickering; she gave birth to a son in 1535.  In 1533, as part of Anne Boleyn’s coronation celebrations, he became a Knight of the Bath.

At the beginning of May in 1536, Queen Anne Boleyn was arrested after Mark Smeaton confessed to adultery with her. Queen Anne was confused after her arrest, and spoke of many things that could have led to it. She told of a conversation she had had in 1535 with Francis;

“She more feared Weston, for on Whitsunday Tuesday last Weston told her that Norris came more unto her chambers for her than for Madge Shelton.”

“She had spoke to him, because he did love her kinswoman Ms Shelton and that he loved not his wife. Weston replied that he loved one in her house more than both Madge and his wife- the Queen.”

After the conversations were reported, Francis was quickly arrested and sent to the Tower, accused of adultery with the Queen. He did not confess, nor did he face torture or extreme questioning. The conversations that Queen Anne had revealed, along with Mark Smeaton’s confession, were evidence enough. He had also recieved money from the Queen- but so had many other young, married courtiers. Nevertheless, this was used against him.

Portrait of Francis Weston by an unknown artist

Francis was tried alongside George Boleyn, Mark Smeaton, William Brereton and Henry Norris at Westminster Hall on May 12th 1536. He was accused of high treason, adultery with the Queen, plotting the death of the King and supporting a marriage between Henry Norris and Anne Boleyn. He pleaded not guilty, however Francis, along with the other men, was found guilty. He was sentenced to death by beheading.

After his conviction, Francis’ family petitioned King Henry, offering him money for Francis’ reprieve. Francis, because his father was still alive, did not have a lot to leave for the crown by way of land or moneys. The King refused the family’s request. In his last days in the Tower, Francis wrote a letter of apology to his parents.

Francis Weston was beheaded on the same scaffold as George Boleyn, William Brereton, Henry Norris and Mark Smeaton on May 17th 1536. He told the crowd around the scaffold to take his death as a warning- “for I had thought to have lived in abomination yet these twenty or thirty years and then to have made amends.” He was beheaded by the stroke of the axe. He was 25 years old.

Further reading-

“The Life and Death of Anne Boleyn” by Eric Ives

“Six Wives of Henry VIII” by Dr David Starkey

Earl Waltheof

Earl Waltheof was the younger son of Siward, Earl of Northumbria and his wife. Waltheof had an older brother, Osbearn. Osbearn died during the battle of Dunsinane in 1054, making Waltheof his father’s heir. His father died the following year. Waltheof was only around 10 years old, so his Earldom was given to Tostig Godwinson. Waltheof went to a monestary to complete his education.

In 1065, there was a revolt in Northumbria against the rule of Tostig. The people thought him a harsh ruler who taxed to highly. Following the revolt, Waltheof was given the title Earl of Huntingdon.

Waltheof was not involved in the Battle of Hastings in 1066. He submitted himself to the new King, William the Conquerer, and retained his Earldom.

In 1069 Waltheof became involved in a revolt in York with Eadgar Atheling, the nephew of Edward the Confessor, and the army of the King of Denmark. Eadger was the last Saxon heir to the throne. They attacked Norman garrison in York, Waltheof himself beheading many Norman soldiers. King William sent his army North immediately to stop the rebellion. In 1070 the Danish left England. King William decided to make a terrible example of York, and carried out what we now call ”Harrying of the North”. King William and his army killed every single person they passed between York and Durham, looted buildings and set fires. The bodies of murdered northerners littered the roads, and people who managed to escape starved to death or were forced to beg for food while travelling south. Eadger Atheling, who was married to the Scottish King’s sister, fled to Scotland.

Waltheof submitted himself to King William for the second time in 1070. The King accepted his submission. Waltheof married the King’s niece, Judith, the same year. They had three children together- their oldest child, Matilda, grew up to marry the King of Scotland, David I. In 1072, Waltheof’s cousin Gospatric went into exile. Waltheof became the Earl of Northumbria.

Statue of Earl Waltheof at Croyland Abbey, Lincolnshire  http://crowlandabbey.org.uk/

In 1075 there was another revolt against the King- The Revolt of the Earls. The King had refused permission for the daughter of the Earl of Hereford, Emma, to marry the Earl of East Anglia. The revolt was unsuccessful- Waltheof confessed the revolt to Lanfranc, the Archbishop of Canterbury. Soon after he travelled to Normandy to confess to King William in person. When Waltheof returned to England, he was arrested. His wife publicly accused him of complicity. He was brought before the King’s court and sentenced to death.

After being imprisoned for over a year, Waltheof was beheaded in Winchester on 31st May 1076. According to one eyewitness, he spent so long praying the axeman got impatient, and cut off his head partway through The Lord’s Prayer. His head, apparently, finished the prayer.

Waltheof was the last of England’s Saxon Earls, and the only nobleman to be executed by William the Conquerer.

Further reading-

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

A blog studying this era in history by my friend Paula- http://paulalofting-sonsofthewolf.blogspot.com/

Queen Katherine Howard

Katherine Howard was a younger daughter of Edmund Howard and his wife, Jocasta Culpeper. Her date of birth is not known for certain; the year of her birth is thought to be between 1521-1523. Jocasta already had several children by her first husband when she married Edmund. Edmund Howard was a younger son of the 2nd Duke of Norfolk and his first wife. Although from a powerful family, he had no lands or inheritance and therefore not much money. Edmund’s sister Elizabeth was the mother of Anne Boleyn, making Anne and Katherine first cousins. Jocasta died when Katherine was very young and Edmund re-married. His second wife was a widow named Dorothy with 8 children of her own. In 1531 Edmund was given a job as Controller of Calais.

While she was still a young girl, Katherine was sent to live at Lambeth Palace on the bank of the River Thames. It was the household of her step-grandmother Agnes Tilney; widow of the second Duke of Norfolk. It was here Katherine received her education. She was literate in English, played the lute, a good dancer and had good courtly manners. The Dowager Duchess’ household lacked discipline, however, with the young men and women doing what they pleased a lot of the time. The young men were able to sneak into the girls’ bedrooms at night.

Katherine soon started an affair with her music master, Henry Manox. He was employed to teach at the Dowager Duchess’ household in 1536. Katherine and Henry became close, although they never had sex. The Dowager Duchess caught the two of them together several times. The relationship between Henry and Katherine ended, and soon after Katherine was involved with Francis Dereham.

Miniature portrait of Katherine Howard, painted by Hans Holbein the Younger

 

 

Francis Dereham was a gentleman in the Dowager Duchess’ household. Katherine was much more taken with Francis than she was with Henry; Francis would bring her presents and she secretly allowed him to come into the girl’s bedroom at night. Their relationship was sexual. They seemed to be in love with eachother, and agreed to marry when Francis returned from a trip to Ireland.

Katherine was chosen to go to the Royal Court in 1539 as a lady in waiting to the new Queen, Anne of Cleves. King Henry VIII was not happy with his new wife. Katherine soon caught his eye. King Henry started sending Katherine gifts in spring 1540, which she accepted happily. Her uncle, the Duke of Norfolk, encouraged the relationship. The Dowager Duchess was also encouraging, sending Katherine new clothes and giving her advice about what to do with the King. King Henry’s marriage to Anne of Cleves was annulled on July 9th 1540, Katherine married Henry on July 28th.

The King was very much in love with his new wife. She was granted most of the recently executed Thomas Cromwell’s estates, as well as two dissolved abbeys in Reading and Gloucester. Henry called Katherine his “rose without a thorn” and she took the motto “no other will than his”. He showered Katherine with gifts and jewels and gave her a lot of his attention.

Katherine was no older than 19 when she married the King. King Henry was 49, overweight and sick with an infected ulcer on his leg. In the spring of 1541, Katherine started a flirtation with a young member of the King’s privy chamber, Thomas Culpeper. They had flirted when she first arrived at Court, but as she had caught the King’s eye nothing came of it. The flirtation soon became an affair. Katherine wrote Thomas love letters and was infatuated if not in love. (http://englishhistory.net/tudor/letter13.html)

The secret meetings between Katherine and Thomas Culpeper continued while the Court went on progress to the North in 1541. One of Katherine’s ladies, Jane Boleyn, found out about the affair. Rather than tell anyone about it, she assisted Katherine and Thomas with their meetings and kept the affair a secret. If Katherine’s other ladies knew of the affair, they did not say anything. Francis Dereham returned to England during the royal progress and became Katherine’s private secretary. She also gave jobs to two women she had grown up with in the Dowager Duchess’ household; Katherine Tilney and Joan Bulmer became her ladies in waiting.

Mary Hall was another woman who had grown up in the household of the Dowager Duchess. She told her brother John Lascelles, who told Archbishop Cranmer, of Katherine’s affairs with Henry Manox and Francis Dereham. Mary also told of a pre-contract of marriage between Francis and Katherine, which would make her marriage to the King null and void. When King Henry discovered the rumours, he did not believe a word. He ordered a secret investigation into the rumours with the intention of clearing his wife’s name.

On November 5th 1541, Katherine was instructed to stay in her rooms at Hampton Court while the investigation took place. She did not know at first why she had been confined. On November 7th, she was questioned by Archbishop Cranmer. She denied there was a pre-contract of marriage between her and Francis, but eventually confessed to having a sexual relationship with him. She confessed her affair with Henry Manox too, but denied having sex with him.

Katherine Howard at Syon Abbey, played by Tamsin Merchant in the Showtime TV series “The Tudors”

 

 

Both Francis Dereham and Henry Manox were arrested on November 5th and questioned by Thomas Wriothesley. Henry Manox confessed to having his affair with Katherine, and confirmed they had not consummated it. Francis Dereham confessed to having carnal knowledge of the Queen, although not after her marriage, only before. Ladies from Katherine’s household were also questioned about the affairs and the Dowager Duchess was arrested.

On November 11th, under further questioning, Francis revealed the Queen’s current affair with Thomas Culpeper; he was arrested the next day and questioned. Thomas confessed to a sexual relationship with Katherine, but later changed his story and said the affair was not sexual. His belongings were searched. Jane Boleyn’s knowledge of the affair was discovered when a letter Katherine had written to Thomas, naming her, was found. She too was arrested and sent to the Tower.

On November 13th 1541 the Queen’s household was closed and on the 23rd she was stripped of her title of Queen. She was to be known as the Lady Katherine Howard and was sent to Syon Abbey. On December 1st, Thomas and Francis went on trial. They were found guilty and executed on December 10th.  The Dowager Duchess was charged with concealing the affairs and kept in prison; she was later released and pardoned by the King. Henry Manox was also released.

Katherine remained at Syon Abbey. An act of attainder to convict both herself and Jane Boleyn of treason was put to Parliament on January 21st 1542. The bill passed on February 7th: it was now an act of high treason to keep any past sexual relationships a secret from the King, if you were to become his wife. Katherine was moved from Syon Abbey to the Tower of London on February 10th. She passed both Thomas’ and Francis’ heads on the way; they were displayed on pikes at London Bridge. Katherine’s execution was scheduled for February 13th. She was to be beheaded on the same scaffold as Jane Boleyn. On the evening of the 12th of February, she asked for the block to be brought to her, so she could practice how to lay her head. This request was granted.

Katherine was beheaded with a single stroke of the axe a little after 7am on February 13th, 1542. She did not declare “I would rather die the wife of Culpeper!” as is often said. She made a good speech, begging pardon for her sins and praying for the King’s preservation. An eyewitness, Ottwell Johnson, said of her;

“I saw the Queen, then Lady Rochford, suffer within the Tower. Whose souls be with God, for they made the most Godly and Christian end.”

Katherine Howard at her execution, played by Tamsin Merchant in the Showtime TV series “The Tudors”

 

Further reading-

“The Six Wives of Henry VIII” by David Starkey

“Tudor Queens of England” by David Loades

George Plantagenet

George Plantagenet was the third surviving son of Richard Plantagenet and Cecily Nevill, born on October 21st 1449 in Dublin. Richard Plantagenet was Duke of York and a direct descendant of Edward III from both his mother and his father; his father was descended from the fifth son and his mother from the third. Richard of York was extremely well connected; through the marriages of his and his wife’s siblings, he was related to almost all of the English nobility.

Richard of York had a claim to the English throne, and made it known. After a battle at Northampton in 1460, Parliament agreed to make Richard Henry VI’s heir. The Queen, Margaret of Anjou, strongly opposed the removal of her son, Prince Edward, as heir. Another battle was fought in Wakefield; Richard and his eldest son Edmund both fought in this battle and were killed on the field. Edward, the new Duke of York, now saw himself as rightful King of England. Edward won the Battle of Mortimer’s Cross in February 1461 and the Battle of Towton in March, and proclaimed himself King Edward IV in London.

Edward IV was crowned King on June 28th 1461. George was now heir to throne of England. As part of his brother’s coronation celebrations, he was created a Knight of the Bath and was invested Duke of Clarence. He remained heir apparent until Edward’s first son, Prince Edward, was born in November 1470.

In May 1464, Edward IV married Elizabeth Woodville in secret. The King’s council were not happy with the marriage, which seemed to be a love match rather than a politically advantageous one. King Edward married Elizabeth’s family into the English nobility. This elevation of the Woodville family left a lot of important people unhappy. However, they accepted it.

On July 11th 1469 George married Isabel Nevill in Calais. She was the daughter of the Earl of Warwick. Edward had repeatedly refused to allow the marriage; he wanted George to make a more advantageous match. They married anyway. George and Warwick had devised a plot to overthrow King Edward and Elizabeth Woodville; making George King and Isabel Queen. It was rumoured that Edward was illegitimate and unfit to rule; this is the reason they would use for their rebellion. They raised an army and travelled to England. George and Warwick defeated the King’s army at the Battle of Edgecote Moor at the end of July 1469. King Edward was captured and imprisoned in Yorkshire. Edward’s supporters were executed on George and Warwick’s command- Earl Rivers, who was the Queen’s father, the Earl of Pembroke, Sir John Woodville and Sir Richard Herbert. Other supporters of Edward had been killed in battle. Warwick, however, did not make George King. Further rebellions broke out in the North and Warwick had no choice but to release Edward. George and Warwick attempted to rebel again and make George King; they were defeated and were exiled to France in April 1470.

George Plantagenet, Duke of Clarence, Earl of Warwick and Earl of Salisbury

George and Warwick devised a plot with Margaret of Anjou, the deposed Queen consort, while they were in exile. A marriage was arranged between Warwick’s younger daughter, Anne, and Henry VI and Margaret’s son, Edward. George was to be second in line to the throne, after the restored Henry VI and his son. They invaded England again in October 1470. This time the rebellion was successful; King Edward went into exile in Burgundy with his brother, Richard Duke of Gloucester, and Henry VI was restored to the throne. George was second in line to the crown, after the restored Prince of Wales. George was treated with great respect.

Edward returned to England in March 1471. George was commissioned by Henry VI to form an army, as was Warwick. George, however, reconciled with his brothers Edward and Richard and took his men into battle on Edward’s side. Edward won the Battle of Barnet and was restored as King of England. George did not fight in this battle. Edward won his second battle, at Tewkesbury, in May 1471 and Henry VI was imprisoned in the Tower of London. He died there soon after. Both Warwick and Henry VI’s son Edward were killed during the battle; Warwick died at Barnet and Edward died at Tewkesbury. With the help of his mother and sisters, George was restored to Royal favour.

Warwick died with no male issue. His brother had fought against Edward IV, which was an act of treason. Warwick was also guilty of treason, so his lands, goods and titles now belonged to the Crown. George had Anne Nevill in his custody as ward until she married Richard in July 1472. George and Richard argued over who was to inherit from Warwick. Warwick was not attained for treason however, so all of his lands and goods should have been left to his widow. Edward IV split the Warwick estates between his two brothers, disinheriting Warwick’s widow, the Countess. She was in sanctuary at the time. George was now Earl of Warwick and Earl of Salisbury as well as Duke of Clarence.

George’s wife Isabel Nevill died at the age of 25, in December 1476. During his period of mourning, a marriage to the King of Scotland’s daughter was proposed, as was a match with Mary of Burgundy, his sister’s stepdaughter.Both matches were disapproved of by Edward IV. Both of these matches would have been advantageous for George. He left the Royal Court in 1477, and again plotted rebellion against the King.

George was arrested and sent to the Tower of London in January 1478. He was again guilty of plotting to overthrow King Edward in an attempt to make himself King. He was also charged with the slander of the King by referring to him as illegitimate, receiving oaths of allegience from men in order to rebel and planned another rebellion. He was found guilty of high treason was sentenced to death. His sentence was commuted by the King to a private execution.

George was executed within the Tower of London on the 18th February 1478. His method of execution is not known for certain. A story emerged after his death that he had been drowned in a butt of malmsey wine. There is no solid evidence for this, however, no other method of execution is recorded anywhere that is known of. His daughter Margaret Pole is painted as a woman with a wine barrel hanging from her wrist. Drowning as an execution method is not common among noblemen, who were usually beheaded. The circumstances surrounding George’s execution are indeed very mysterious.

George Plantagenet left behind two living children; Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury and Edward Plantagenet, 17th Earl of Warwick.

Picture showing the malmsey wine execution- image from www.luminarium.org

Further reading-

“False, Fleeting, Perjur’d Clarence” by M.A. Hicks

Thank you to Karen Clark, Susan Higginbotham and Cynthia Ward Cooper.

Karen has a Wars of the Roses blog- http://nevillfeast.wordpress.com/ and is the author of the spoof Wars of the Roses novel “The Daisy and the Bear”.

Susan is the author of many novels, including ”The Queen of Last Hopes”, a novel of Margaret of Anjou.